c192.
Ferdinand Tönnies (1887), Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft. A convenient explanation of Tönnies’ distinction (which cannot be fairly explained in a summary as short as this) can be found in Jan Falk’s essay “Ferdinand Tönnies”, chapter 4, in Heine Andersen and Lars Bo Kaspersen, eds. (1996), Classical and Modern Social Theory. “Internal” and “external” come from Falk’s essay.